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James K. Polk
This article is about the U.S. president. For other individuals and entities named James Polk, see James Polk (disambiguation). |birth_place=Pineville, North Carolina |death_date= |death_place=Nashville, Tennessee |spouse=Sarah Childress Polk |occupation=Lawyer, Farmer (Planter) |party=Democratic |religion=Methodist |alma_mater=University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill |signature=James K Polk Signature.svg |order3=11th Governor of Tennessee |term_start3=October 14, 1839 |term_end3= October 15, 1841 |predecessor3= Newton Cannon |successor3= James Chamberlain Jones |order2=17th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives |term_start2=December 7, 1835 |term_end2=March 4, 1839 |president2=Andrew Jackson Martin Van Buren |predecessor2=John Bell |successor2=Robert M. T. Hunter |order4 =Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee's 6th district |term_start4 =March 4, 1825 |term_end4 =March 3, 1833 |predecessor4 =John A. Cocke |successor4 =Balie Peyton |order5 =Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Tennessee's 9th district |term_start5 =March 4, 1833 |term_end5 =March 3, 1839 |predecessor5 =William Fitzgerald |successor5 =Harvey M. Watterson |order6 =Chairman of the House Committee on Ways and Means |term6 =1833–1835 |preceded6 =Gulian C. Verplanck |succeeded6 =Churchill C. Cambreleng |order7 =Member of the Tennessee House of Representatives from Maury County |term_start7 =1823 |term_end7 =1825 |predecessor7 = |successor7 = }} James Knox Polk ( ) (November 2, 1795 – June 15, 1849) was the 11th President of the United States (1845–1849). Polk was born in Mecklenburg County, North Carolinahttp://www.presidentialavenue.com/jp.cfm#1, but mostly lived in and represented the state of Tennessee. A Democrat, Polk served as Speaker of the House (1835–1839) and Governor of Tennessee (1839–1841) before becoming president. A firm supporter of Andrew Jackson, Polk was the last strong pre-Civil War president. Polk is noted for his foreign policy successes. He threatened war with Britain then backed away and split the ownership of the Northwest with Britain. He is even more famous for leading the successful Mexican–American War. He lowered the tariff and established a treasury system that lasted until 1913. A little-known candidate in 1844, he was the first president to retire after a single term without seeking reelection. He died of cholera three months after his term ended. As a Democrat committed to geographic expansion (or Manifest Destiny), he overrode Whig objections and was responsible for the second-largest expansion of the nation's territory. Polk secured the Oregon Territory (including Washington, Oregon and Idaho), amounting to about 285,000 square miles (738,000 km²), then purchased 525,000 square miles (1,360,000 km²) through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican–American War. The expansion reopened a furious debate over allowing slavery in the new territories. The controversy was inadequately arbitrated by the Compromise of 1850, and only found its ultimate resolution on the battlefields of the U.S. Civil War. Polk signed the Walker Tariff that brought an era of near free trade to the country until 1861. He oversaw the opening of the U.S. Naval Academy and the Smithsonian, the groundbreaking for the Washington Monument, and the issuance of the first postage stamps in the United States, introduced by his Postmaster General Cave Johnson. He was the first President of the United States to be photographed frequently while in office. Scholars have ranked him eighth to twelfth on the list of greatest presidents for his ability to set an agenda and achieve all of it. Early life Polk, the first of ten children, was born in a farmhouse (possibly a "log" cabin) in what is now Pineville, North Carolina in Mecklenburg County on November 2, 1795, just outside of Charlotte.Borneman p. 6 His father, Samuel Polk, was a slaveholder, successful farmer and surveyor of Scots-Irish descent. His mother, Jane Polk (née Knox), was a descendant of a brother of the Scottish religious reformer John Knox and named her firstborn after her father James Knox.Borneman p. 6 Like most early settlers in the North Carolina mountains, the Knox and Polk families were traditionally Presbyterian. While Jane remained a devout Presbyterian her entire life, Samuel (whose father, Ezekial Polk, was a deist) rejected dogmatic Presbyterianism, so when James was taken to be baptized, Samuel refused to declare his belief in Christianity, and the minister refused to baptize the child.Borneman p. 6Haynes, pp. 4–6. In 1803, the majority of Polk's relatives moved to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Middle Tennessee; however, Polk's family waited until 1806 to follow.Borneman p. 7 The family grew prosperous, with Samuel Polk turning to land speculation and becoming a county judge.Borneman p. 7 During his childhood, James suffered from poor health, which negatively affected his early schooling.Borneman p. 7 In 1812, just before he turned 17, his father tried to take him to Philadelphia to seek Dr. Philip Syng Physick in the back of a covered wagon. However, his pain became so unbearable that he was taken instead to the nearer Dr. Ephraim McDowell of Danville, Kentucky, who conducted an operation to remove urinary stones.Borneman p. 8 The operation was conducted while Polk was awake, having been given some brandy, but it was successful. However, it may have left Polk sterile, as he never had children.Seigenthaler p. 19 , is his only residence still standing.]] When Polk recovered, his father offered to bring him into the mercantile business but Polk refused.Borneman p. 8 In July 1813, Polk enrolled at the Zion Church near his home. A year later attended an academy in Murfreesboro, where he potentially could have met his future wife, Sarah Childress; however, this has not been convincingly proven.Borneman p. 13 At Murfreesboro Polk was regarded as a promising student, thus in January 1816 Polk was admitted into the University of North Carolina as a second-semester sophomore.Borneman p. 8 The Polks had connections with the university, then a small school of about eighty students: Sam Polk was their land agent for Tennessee, and his cousin, William Polk, was a trustee.Haynes p.11. While there, Polk joined the Dialectic Society, in which he regularly took part in debates and learned the art of oration.Borneman p. 8 He also became the first person to be reelected president of the society. Among the people Polk met at the university was his roommate William Dunn Moseley, who later became the first governor of Florida.Borneman p. 9 Polk graduated with honors in May 1818.Borneman p. 9 After graduation, Polk traveled to Nashville to study law under renowned Nashville trial attorney Felix Grundy.Borneman p. 10 Grundy became Polk's first mentor. On September 20, 1819, Polk was elected to be the clerk for the Tennessee State Senate with Grundy's endorsement.Borneman p. 11 Polk was reelected as clerk in 1821 without opposition, and would continue to serve until 1822. Polk was admitted to the bar in June 1820 and his first case was to defend his father against a public fighting charge, a case which he was able to get his father's release for a fine of one dollar.Borneman p. 11 Polk's practice was successful as there were many cases regarding the settlement of debts following the Panic of 1819.Seigenthaler p.24 Early political career In 1822 Polk resigned his position as clerk to run his successful campaign for the Tennessee state legislature in 1823, in which he defeated incumbent William Yancey, becoming the new representative of Maury County.Borneman p. 14Seigenthaler p.25 In 1821 Polk joined the local militia with the rank of Captain, and was soon promoted to Colonel.Seigenthaler p.25 Polk's oratory became popular, earning him the nickname "Napoleon of the Stump." In October 1823 Polk voted for Andrew Jackson to become the next United States Senator from Tennessee.Borneman p. 17 Jackson won and from then on Polk was a firm supporter of Jackson.Borneman p. 18 Polk courted Sarah Childress, and they married on January 1, 1824.Borneman p. 14 Polk was then 28, and Sarah was 20 years old. Through their marriage they had no children. They were married until his death in 1849. During Polk's political career, Sarah was said to assist her husband with his speeches, give him advice on policy matters and was always active in his campaigns. An old story told that Andrew Jackson had encouraged their romance when they began to court.Sarah Childress Polk. The White House. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. In 1824, Jackson ran for President but was defeated.Borneman p. 22 Though Jackson had won the popular vote, neither he nor any of the other candidates (John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and William H. Crawford) had obtained a majority of the electoral vote. The House of Representatives then had to select the verdict; Clay, who had received the least amount of electoral votes and therefore was dropped from the ballot, supported Adams.Borneman p. 22 Clay's support proved to be the deciding factor in the House and Adams was elected President.Borneman p. 22 Adams then offered Clay a position in the Cabinet as Secretary of State.Borneman p. 22 In 1825, Polk ran for the United States House of Representatives for the Tennessee's 6th congressional district.Borneman p. 23 Polk rigorously campaigned in the district. Polk was so active that Sarah began to worry about his health.Borneman p. 23 During the campaign, Polk's opponents said that at the age of 29 Polk was too young for a spot in the House. However, Polk won the election and took his seat in Congress.Borneman p. 23 When Polk arrived in Washington D.C he roomed in a boarding house with some other Tennessee representatives, including Benjamin Burch. Polk made his first major speech on March 13, 1826, in which he said that the Electoral College should be abolished and that the President should be elected by the popular vote.Borneman p. 24 After Congress went into recess in the summer of 1826, Polk returned to Tennessee to see Sarah, and when Congress met again in the autumn, Polk returned to Washington with Sarah. In 1827 Polk was reelected to Congress.Borneman p. 26 In 1828, Jackson ran for President again and during the campaign Polk and Jackson corresponded, with Polk giving Jackson advice on his campaign. With Jackson's victory in the election Polk began to support the administration's position in Congress.Borneman p. 32 During this time, Polk continued to be reelected in the House. In August 1833, after being elected to this fifth term, Polk became the chair of the House Ways and Means Committee.Borneman p. 33 Speaker of the House In June 1834, Speaker of the House Andrew Stevenson resigned, leaving the spot for speaker open.Borneman p. 34 Polk ran against fellow Tennessean John Bell for Speaker, and after ten ballots, Bell won. However, in 1835 Polk ran against Bell for Speaker again and this time Polk won.Borneman p. 35 Polk worked for Jackson's policies as speaker, and Van Buren's when he succeeded Jackson in 1837; he appointed committees with Democratic chairs and majorities, including the New York radical C. C. Cambreleng as Chair of the Ways and Means Committee, although he maintained the facade of traditional bipartisanship.Seigenthaler p. 57 The two major issues during Polk's speakership were slavery and the economy, following the Panic of 1837. Van Buren and Polk faced pressure to rescind the Specie Circular, an act that had been passed by Jackson, in an attempt to help the economy. The act required that payment for government lands be in gold and silver. However, with support from Polk and his cabinet, Van Buren chose to stick with the Specie Circular.Seigenthaler p. 60 Polk attempted to make a more orderly house. He never challenged anyone to a duel no matter how much they insulted his honor as was customary at the time.Seigenthaler p. 62 Polk also issued the gag rule on petitions from abolitionists.Seigenthaler p. 62 Governor of Tennessee In 1838, the political situation in Tennessee—where, in 1835, Democrats had lost the governorship for the first time in their party's history—persuaded Polk to return to help the party at home.Seigenthaler p. 64 Leaving Congress in 1839, Polk became a candidate in the Tennessee gubernatorial election, defeating the incumbent Whig, Newton Cannon by about 2,500 votes, out of about 105,000.Seigenthaler p.65: 54,012 to 51,396 Polk's three major programs during his governorship; regulating state banks, implementing state internal improvements, and improving education all did not get approval by the legislature.Seigenthaler p. 66 In the presidential election of 1840, Van Buren was overwhelmingly defeated by a popular Whig, William Henry Harrison. Polk received one electoral vote from Tennessee for Vice President in the election. Polk lost his own reelection bid to a Whig, James C. Jones, in 1841, by 3,243 votes.Seigenthaler p. 67 He challenged Jones in 1843, campaigning across the state and publicly debating against Jones, but was defeated again, this time by a slightly greater margin of 3,833 votes.Borneman p.64Seigenthaler p. 68 Election of 1844 Polk initially hoped to be nominated for vice-president at the Democratic convention, which began on May 27, 1844. The leading contender for the presidential nomination was former President Martin Van Buren, who wanted to stop the expansion of slavery. Other candidates included James Buchanan, General Lewis Cass, Cave Johnson, John C. Calhoun, and Levi Woodbury. The primary point of political contention involved the Republic of Texas, which, after declaring independence from Mexico in 1836, had asked to join the United States. Van Buren opposed the annexation but in doing so lost the support of many Democrats, including former President Andrew Jackson, who still had much influence. Van Buren won a simple majority on the convention's first ballot but did not attain the two-thirds supermajority required for nomination. After six more ballots, when it became clear that Van Buren would not win the required majority, Polk was put forth as a "dark horse" candidate. The eighth ballot was also indecisive, but on the ninth, the convention unanimously nominated Polk, supported by Jackson. Before the convention, Polk was called to the home of Andrew Jackson, by Jackson himself. Jackson told Polk that he was his favorite for the nomination of the Democratic Party. Even with this support, Polk still instructed his managers at the convention to support Van Buren, but only if it was certain that Van Buren had a chance to win the nomination. This assured that if a deadlocked convention occurred, initial supporters of Van Buren would pick Polk as a compromise candidate for the Democrats. In the end, this is exactly what happened as a result for Polk's support of westward expansion.Brinkley, Alan and Davis Dyer, (ed). The American Presidency. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. ISBN 0-618-38273-9 pp. 129–138 When advised of his nomination, Polk replied: "It has been well observed that the office of President of the United States should neither be sought nor declined. I have never sought it, nor should I feel at liberty to decline it, if conferred upon me by the voluntary suffrages of my fellow citizens." Because the Democratic Party was splintered into bitter factions, Polk promised to serve only one term if elected, hoping that his disappointed rival Democrats would unite behind him with the knowledge that another candidate would be chosen in four years.Haynes, pp. 61–2 Polk's Whig opponent in the 1844 presidential election was Henry Clay of Kentucky. (Incumbent Whig President John Tyler—a former Democrat—had become estranged from the Whigs and was not nominated for a second term.) The question of the annexation of Texas, which was at the forefront during the Democratic Convention, again dominated the campaign. Polk was a strong proponent of immediate annexation, while Clay seemed more equivocal and vacillating. Another campaign issue, also related to westward expansion, involved the Oregon Country, then under the joint occupation of the United States and Great Britain. The Democrats had championed the cause of expansion, informally linking the controversial Texas annexation issue with a claim to the entire Oregon Country, thus appealing to both Northern and Southern expansionists. (The slogan "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight," often incorrectly attributed to the 1844 election, did not appear until later; see Oregon boundary dispute.) Polk's consistent support for westward expansion—what Democrats would later call "Manifest Destiny"—likely played an important role in his victory, as opponent Henry Clay hedged his position. In the election, Polk and his running mate, George M. Dallas, won in the South and West, while Clay drew support in the Northeast. Polk lost his home state of Tennessee as well as North Carolina, his alma mater. However, Polk won the crucial state of New York (with the support of many Van Buren supporters, since it was his home state), where Clay lost supporters to the third-party candidate James G. Birney of the Liberty Party, who was antislavery. Also contributing to Polk's victory was the support of new immigrant voters, who were angered at the Whigs' policies. Polk won the popular vote by a margin of about 39,000 out of 2.6 million, and took the Electoral College with 170 votes to Clay's 105."The American Presidency Project - Election of 1844." Retrieved: March 27, 2008. Polk won 15 states, while Clay won 11."National Atlas - Presidential Elections Maps 1844-1856." Retrieved: March 27, 2008. Polk is the only Speaker of the House of Representatives to be elected President of the United States. Presidency (1845–1849) When he took office on March 4, 1845, Polk, at 49, became the youngest man at the time to assume the presidency. According to a story told decades later by George Bancroft, Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: *The reestablishment of the Independent Treasury System. *The reduction of tariffs. *Acquisition of some or all the Oregon Country. *The acquisition of California and New Mexico from Mexico. Pledged to serve only one term, he accomplished all these objectives in just four years. By linking acquisition of new lands in Oregon (with no slavery) and Texas (with slavery), he hoped to satisfy both North and South. During his presidency James K. Polk was known as "Young Hickory" and "The Napoleon of the Stump" for his speaking skills. Fiscal policy In 1846, Congress approved the Walker Tariff (named after Robert J. Walker, the Secretary of the Treasury), which represented a substantial reduction of the high Whig-backed Tariff of 1842. The new law abandoned ad valorem tariffs; instead, rates were made independent of the monetary value of the product. Polk's actions were popular in the South and West; however, they earned him the enmity of many protectionists in Pennsylvania. In 1846, Polk approved a law restoring the Independent Treasury System, under which government funds were held in the Treasury rather than in banks or other financial institutions. This established independent treasury deposit offices, separate from private or state banks, to receive all government funds. Slavery of President Polk]] Polk's views on slavery made his presidency bitterly unpopular between proponents of slavery, opponents of slavery, and advocates of compromise. During his presidency, many abolitionists harshly criticized him as an instrument of the "Slave Power," and claimed that the expansion of slavery lay behind his support for the annexation of Texas and later war with Mexico.Haynes, p. 154 Polk stated in his diary that he believed slavery could not exist in the territories won from Mexico,Schlesinger, p. 453, citing Polk's Diary II, 289 but refused to endorse the Wilmot Proviso that would forbid it there. Polk argued instead for extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, which would prohibit the expansion of slavery above 36° 30' west of Missouri, but allow it below that line if approved by eligible voters in the territory. William Dusinberre has argued that Polk's diary, which he kept during his presidency, was written for later publication, and does not represent Polk's real policy; most historians accept it.who? Polk was a slaveholder for his entire life. His father, Samuel Polk, had left Polk more than 8,000 acres (32 km²) of land, and divided about 53 slaves to his widow and children after Samuel died. James inherited twenty of his father's slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending slaves to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Forty years later Polk sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres (3.7 km²) of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi. He ran this plantation for the rest of his life, eventually taking it over completely from his brother-in-law. Polk rarely sold slaves, although once he became President and could better afford it, he bought more. Polk's will stipulated that their slaves were to be manumitted after his wife Sarah had died. However, the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation and the 1865 Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution freed all remaining slaves in rebel states long before the death of his wife in 1891.Dusinberre, passim Foreign policy Polk was committed to expansion: Democrats believed that opening up more land for yeoman farmers was critical for the success of republican virtue. (See Manifest Destiny.) Like most Southerners, he supported the annexation of Texas. To balance the interests of North and South, he wanted to acquire the Oregon Country (present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and British Columbia) as well. He sought to purchase California, which Mexico had neglected. Texas President Tyler despised Polk, both as a person and politician. Upon hearing of Polk's election to office, Tyler urged Congress to pass a joint resolution admitting Texas to the Union; Congress complied on February 28, 1845. This was a backhanded slap at Polk; it took away Polk's most desired presidential action. Polk's whole campaign was based upon the tenet of annexing Texas. Now, Polk could not. Texas promptly accepted the offer and officially became a state on December 29, 1845. The annexation angered Mexico, which had lost Texas in 1836. Mexican politicians had repeatedly warned that annexation would lead to war. Oregon territory , established by the Oregon Treaty]] Polk put heavy pressure on Britain to resolve the Oregon boundary dispute. Since 1818, the territory had been under the joint occupation and control of Great Britain and the United States. Previous U.S. administrations had offered to divide the region along the 49th parallel, which was not acceptable to Britain, which had commercial interests along the Columbia River. Although the Democratic platform asserted a claim to the entire region, Polk was prepared to quietly compromise. When the British again refused to accept the 49th parallel boundary proposal, Polk broke off negotiations and returned to the "All Oregon" position of the Democratic platform, which escalated tensions along the border. Expansionists after the 1844 election shouted "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!" This slogan, although often associated with Polk, was the position of his rivals in the Democratic Party, who wanted Polk to be as uncompromising in acquiring the Oregon territory as he had been in annexing Texas. This slogan is inappropriately tagged to the Election of 1844, although it didn't come until the year after Borneman, Walter (2008). 'Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and American' Polk wanted territory, not war, and compromised with the British Foreign Secretary, Lord Aberdeen. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 divided the Oregon Country along the 49th parallel, the original American proposal. Although there were many who still clamored for the whole of the territory, the treaty was approved by the Senate. By settling for the 49th parallel, Polk angered many midwestern Democrats. Many of these Democrats believed that Polk had always wanted the boundary at the 49th, and that he had fooled them into believing he wanted it at the 54th parallel. The portion of Oregon territory acquired by the United States later formed the states of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, and parts of the states of Montana and Wyoming. War with Mexico After the Texas annexation, Polk turned his attention to California, hoping to acquire the territory from Mexico before any European nation did so. The main interest was San Francisco Bay as an access point for trade with Asia. In 1845, he sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico to purchase California and New Mexico for $20–30 million. Slidell's arrival caused political turmoil in Mexico after word leaked out that he was there to purchase additional territory and not to offer compensation for the loss of Texas. The Mexicans refused to receive Slidell, citing a technical problem with his credentials. In January 1846, to increase pressure on Mexico to negotiate, Polk sent troops under General Zachary Taylor into the area between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande—territory that was claimed by both the U.S. and Mexico. Slidell returned to Washington in May 1846, having been rebuffed by the Mexican government. Polk regarded this treatment of his diplomat as an insult and an "ample cause of war", Haynes, p. 129 and he prepared to ask Congress for a declaration of war. Meanwhile Taylor crossed the Rio Grande River and briefly occupied Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Taylor continued to blockade ships from entering the port of Matamoros. Mere days before Polk intended to make his request to Congress, he received word that Mexican forces had crossed the Rio Grande area and killed eleven American soldiers. Polk then made this the casus belli, and in a message to Congress on May 11, 1846, he stated that Mexico had "invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil." (in red) was acquired through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Gadsden Purchase (in orange) was acquired through purchase after Polk left office.]] Some in Congress expressed doubts about Polk's version of events,In 1847, then-Representative Abraham Lincoln challenged Polk's claims of Mexican invasion with his Spot Resolutions, demanding that Polk identify the spot where Mexicans had "shed American blood upon the American soil." This highlighted the dubious basis of Polk's assertions about the boundary, since the fighting was in a disputed area. A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875. Congressional Globe, House of Representatives, 30th Congress, pp. 93–95. Library of Congress. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. but Congress overwhelmingly approved the declaration of war. Many Whigs feared that opposition would cost them politically by casting themselves as unpatriotic for not supporting the war effort.In January 1848, the Whigs won a House vote attacking Polk in an amendment to a resolution praising Major General Taylor for his service in a "war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States". House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp.183–184 The resolution, however, died in committee. In the House, antislavery Whigs led by John Quincy Adams voted against the war; among Democrats, Senator John C. Calhoun was the most notable opponent of the declaration. By the summer of 1846, American forces under General Stephen W. Kearny had captured New Mexico. Meanwhile, Army captain John C. Frémont led settlers in northern California to overthrow the Mexican garrison in Sonoma (in the Bear Flag Revolt). General Zachary Taylor, at the same time, was having success on the Rio Grande, although Polk did not reinforce his troops there. The United States also negotiated a secret arrangement with Antonio López de Santa Anna, the Mexican general and dictator who had been overthrown in 1844. Santa Anna agreed that, if given safe passage into Mexico, he would attempt to persuade those in power to sell California and New Mexico to the United States. Once he reached Mexico, however, he reneged on his agreement, declared himself President, and tried to drive the American invaders back. Santa Anna's efforts, however, were in vain, as Generals Taylor and Winfield Scott destroyed all resistance. Scott captured Mexico City in September 1847, and Taylor won a series of victories in northern Mexico. Even after these battles, Mexico did not surrender until 1848, when it agreed to peace terms set out by Polk. Polk sent diplomat Nicholas Trist to negotiate with the Mexicans. Lack of progress prompted the President to order Trist to return to the United States, but the diplomat ignored the instructions and stayed in Mexico to continue bargaining. Trist successfully negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, which Polk agreed to ratify, ignoring calls from Democrats who demanded the annexation of the whole of Mexico. The treaty added 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million square kilometers) of territory to the United States; Mexico's size was halved, while that of the United States increased by a third. California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, and parts of New Mexico, Colorado and Wyoming were all included in the Mexican Cession. The treaty also recognized the annexation of Texas and acknowledged American control over the disputed territory between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Mexico, in turn, received the sum of $15 million. The war claimed fewer than 20,000 American lives but over 50,000 Mexican ones. Smith II, 51–8 "about 12,850" deaths out of 90,000 American troops. It may have cost the United States $100 million.Rough estimate of total cost, Smith, II 266–7; this includes the payments to Mexico in exchange for the ceded territories. The excess military appropriations during the war itself were $63,605,621. Finally, the Wilmot Proviso injected the issue of slavery in the new territories, even though Polk had insisted to Congress and in his diary that this had never been a war goal. The treaty, however, needed ratification by the Senate. In March 1848, the Whigs, who had been so opposed to Polk's policy, suddenly changed position. Two-thirds of the Whigs voted for Polk's treaty. This ended the war and legalized the acquisition of the territories. Later in 1848, the Whigs nominated Zachary Taylor, the hero of the war, for President. Taylor said there would be no future wars, but he refused to criticize Polk, who kept his promise not to run for reelection. The war had serious consequences for Polk and the Democrats. It gave the Whig Party a unifying message of denouncing the war as an immoral act of aggression carried out through abuse of power by the President (even though they did vote for the funding of it). In 1848, the House of Representatives voted to censure Polk for starting the war.DeConde, A. (2002). Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy, p. 6. Another consequence was the toll on Polk's health. As a result of the strain of managing the war effort directly and in close detail, his health markedly declined toward the end of his presidency. Cuba In the summer of 1848, President Polk authorized his ambassador to Spain, Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100 million, an astounding sum of money at the time for one territory, equivalent to $ }} in present day terms. Cuba was close to the United States and had slavery, so the idea appealed to Southerners but was unwelcome in the North. But Spain was still making great profits in Cuba (notably in sugar, molasses, and tobacco), and the Spanish government rejected Saunders' overtures. Department of the Interior One of Polk's last acts as President was to sign the bill creating the Department of the Interior (March 3, 1849). This was the first new cabinet position created since the early days of the Republic. Administration and cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court Polk appointed the following Justices to the U.S. Supreme Court: Woodbury was from New Hampshire, and Grier from Pennsylvania. Polk also nominated George W. Woodward of Pennsylvania in 1846, but the nomination was rejected by the United States Senate. Other courts Polk was able to appoint eight other federal judges, one to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and seven to various United States district courts. Congress 29th Congress (March 4, 1845 – March 4, 1847) * Senate: 31 Democrats, 31 Whigs, 1 Other (President Pro Tempore - Willie P. Mangum (Whig-NC), Ambrose H. Servier (D-AR), and David R. Atchison (D-MO)) * House: 143 Democrats, 77 Whigs, 6 Others (Speaker - John W. Davis of Indiana) 30th Congress (March 4, 1847 – March 4, 1849) * Senate: 36 Democrats, 21 Whigs, 1 Other (President Pro Tempore - David R. Atchison (D-MO)) * House: 115 Whigs, 108 Democrats, 4 Others (Speaker - Robert C. Winthrop of Massachusetts) States admitted to the Union *'Texas' – December 29, 1845 *'Iowa' – December 28, 1846 *'Wisconsin' – May 29, 1848 Post-presidency on February 14, 1849, towards the end of his presidency.]] Polk's time in the White House took its toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left on March 4, 1849, exhausted by his years of public service. He lost weight and had deep lines on his face and dark circles under his eyes. He is believed to have contracted cholera in New Orleans, Louisiana, on a goodwill tour of the South.Haynes, p. 191 He died at his new home, Polk Place, in Nashville, Tennessee, at 3:15 p.m. on June 15, 1849, three months after leaving office. He was buried on the grounds of Polk Place. Polk's devotion to his wife is illustrated by his last words: "I love you, Sarah. For all eternity, I love you." She lived at Polk Place for over forty years after his death. She died on August 14, 1891. Polk was also survived by his mother, Jane Knox Polk.Dusinberre, p. xii. Mrs Polk died in 1852. Polk had the shortest retirement of all Presidents at 103 days. He was the youngest former president to die in retirement at the age of 53. He and his wife are buried in a tomb on the grounds of the Tennessee State Capitol in Nashville, Tennessee. The tomb was moved to this location in 1893 after his home at Polk Place was demolished. Reputation Polk's historic reputation was largely formed by the attacks made on him in his own time; the Whigs claimed that he was drawn from a well-deserved obscurity; Senator Tom Corwin of Ohio remarked "James K. Polk, of Tennessee? After that, who is safe?" The Republican historians of the nineteenth century inherited this view. Polk was a compromise between the Democrats of the North, like David Wilmot and Silas Wright, and the plantation owners who were led by John C. Calhoun; the northern Democrats thought that when they did not get their way, it was because he was the tool of the slaveholders, and the conservatives of the South insisted that he was the tool of the northern Democrats. These views were long reflected in the historical literature, until Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr and Bernard De Voto argued that Polk was nobody's tool, but set his own goals and achieved them.Schlesinger, pp.439–455; quote from Corwin (who became a Republican) on p. 439 See also *James K. Polk Ancestral Home References Cited texts * *Bergeron, Paul H. The Presidency of James K. Polk. 1986. ISBN 0-7006-0319-0. *De Voto, Bernard The Year of Decision: 1846 Houghton Mifflin, 1943. *Dusinberre, William. Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk 2003. ISBN 0195157354 *Dusinberre, William. "President Polk and the Politics of Slavery". American Nineteenth Century History 3.1 (2002): 1–16. ISSN 1466-4658. Argues he misrepresented strength of abolitionism, grossly exaggerated likelihood of slaves' massacring white families and seemed to condone secession. *Eisenhower, John S. D. "The Election of James K. Polk, 1844". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 53.2 (1994): 74–87. ISSN 0040-3261. * *Kornblith, Gary J. "Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War: a Counterfactual Exercise". Journal of American History 90.1 (2003): 76–105. ISSN 0021-8723. Asks what if Polk had not gone to war? *Leonard, Thomas M. James K. Polk: A Clear and Unquestionable Destiny. 2000. ISBN 0-8420-2647-9. *McCormac, Eugene Irving. James K. Polk: A Political Biography to the End of a Career, 1845–1849. Univ. of California Press, 1922. (1995 reprint has ISBN 0-945707-10-X.) Extreme anti-Jacksonian views. * McCoy, Charles A. Polk and the Presidency. 1960. * Morrison, Michael A. "Martin Van Buren, the Democracy, and the Partisan Politics of Texas Annexation". Journal of Southern History 61.4 (1995): 695–724. ISSN 0022-4642. Discusses the election of 1844. online edition *Paul; James C. N. Rift in the Democracy. 1951. on 1844 election *Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. Age of Jackson Little Brown, 1945. Pp. 439''ff'' on Polk *Schouler, James. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC15799162&id=Ff2XRHSDkA4C&pg=PR14&dq=schouler+history Democrats and Whigs, 1831–1847]. Vol. 4 of History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution. 1917. *Sellers, Charles. James K. Polk, Jacksonian, 1795–1843. 1957. *Sellers, Charles. James K. Polk, Continentalist, 1843–1846. 1966. *Seigenthaler, John. James K. Polk: 1845–1849. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-6942-9. *Smith, Justin H. The War with Mexico, Macmillan, 1919. Still the standard source, used, for example, Dusinberre. Primary sources * Cutler, Wayne, et al. Correspondence of James K. Polk. 1972–2004. ISBN 1-57233-304-9. 10 vol. scholarly edition of the complete correspondence to and from Polk. * Polk, James K. The Diary of James K. Polk During His Presidency, 1845–1849 edited by Milo Milton Quaife, 4 vols. 1910. Abridged version by Allan Nevins. 1929, online External links *James K. Polk: A Resource Guide, from the Library of Congress *Extensive essay on James K. Polk and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs *Inaugural Address of James K. Polk. *Biography of James K. Polk. The White House (Official Site). *First Message to Congress (1845). *Second Message to Congress (1846). *Third Message to Congress (1847). *Fourth Message to Congress (1848). *POTUS - James Knox Polk * * [http://fair-use.org/the-liberator/1849/06/22/the-death-of-president-polk Obituary of President Polk in The Liberator (June 22, 1849)] *Smithsonian's "Establishing Borders: The Expansion of the United States, 1846-48" with essay and lesson plans *President James K. Polk State Historic Site, Pineville, North Carolina. Category:Presidents of the United States Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees Category:United States presidential candidates, 1844 Category:Speakers of the United States House of Representatives Category:Governors of Tennessee Category:History of the United States (1789–1849) Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee Category:American Methodists Category:University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill alumni Category:Scots-Irish Americans Category:Scottish Americans Category:Deaths from cholera Category:American Presbyterians Category:Burials in Tennessee Category:People from Mecklenburg County, North Carolina Category:Polk family Category:Infectious disease deaths in Tennessee Category:Presidency of James K. Polk Category:James K. Polk Category:1795 births Category:1849 deaths ang:James K. Polk ar:جيمس بولك az:Ceyms Noks Polk bn:জেমস নক্স পোক্‌ zh-min-nan:James K. Polk be:Джэймс Нокс Полк bcl:James K. 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